A Monte Carlo Rendering Framework for Simulating Optical Heterodyne Detection

1Dartmouth College, 2 Aurora Innovation
ACM Transactions on Graphics (SIGGRAPH 2025, 🏆Honorable mention)
teaser

We present a general spectral-domain simulation framework for optical heterodyne detection (OHD), extending path integral rendering to capture power spectral density of OHD. Unlike existing domain-specific tools, our approach supports diverse scenes and applications.

Abstract

Optical heterodyne detection (OHD) employs coherent light and optical interference techniques to extract physical parameters, such as velocity or distance, which are encoded in the frequency modulation of the light. With its superior signal-to-noise ratio compared to incoherent detection methods, such as time-of-flight lidar, OHD has become integral to applications requiring high sensitivity, including autonomous navigation, atmospheric sensing, and biomedical velocimetry. However, current simulation tools for OHD focus narrowly on specific applications, relying on domain-specific settings like restricted reflection functions, scene configurations, or single-bounce assumptions, which limit their applicability. In this work, we introduce a flexible and general framework for spectral-domain simulation of OHD. We demonstrate that classical radiometry-based path integral formulation can be adapted and extended to simulate the OHD measurements in the spectral domain. This enables us to leverage the rich modeling and sampling capabilities of existing Monte Carlo path tracing techniques. Our formulation shares structural similarities with transient rendering but operates in the spectral domain and accounts for the Doppler effect. While simulators for the Doppler effect in incoherent (intensity) detection methods exist, they are largely not suitable to simulate OHD. We use a microsurface interpretation to show that these two Doppler imaging techniques capture different physical quantities and thus need different simulation frameworks. We validate the correctness and predictive power of our simulation framework by qualitatively comparing the simulations with real-world captured data for three different OHD applications---FMCW lidar, blood flow velocimetry, and wind Doppler lidar.

Supplemental Video

What is OHD?

(1) Proposed OHD Path Integral

(2) OHD Speckle Simulation

(3) Comparison with AMCW Doppler

Directional Weight Score

We found that there is an underlying difference in the physics between the Doppler effect in AMCW and OHD, which results in different measurement and simulation strategies. The main reason for this difference is the large disparity in wavelength. AMCW has a much longer wavelength compared to the microgeometry; it observes the rough plane as a smooth plane and thus measures the macroscopic rate of distance change, known as spot velocity. However, for OHD, since the microgeometry has large deviations compared to the wavelength, all microscopic perturbations remain independent and we can detect the actual microscopic velocity, which is called target velocity.

Applications

Directional Weight Score

We demonstrate our simulation algorithm for three different OHD applications. Please refer main paper for details.

BibTeX

@article{kim2025ohd,
  author = {Kim, Juhyeon and Benko, Craig and Wrenninge, Magnus and Villemin, Ryusuke and Barber, Zeb and Jarosz, Wojciech and Pediredla, Adithya},
  title = {A Monte Carlo Rendering Framework for Simulating Optical Heterodyne Detection},
  year = {2025},
  issue_date = {August 2025},
  publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
  address = {New York, NY, USA},
  volume = {44},
  number = {4},
  issn = {0730-0301},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/3731150},
  doi = {10.1145/3731150},
  journal = {ACM Trans. Graph.},
  month = jul,
  articleno = {56},
  numpages = {19}
}